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#### Objectives

– Understand different types of clauses: noun clauses, adjective clauses, and adverbial clauses.

– Learn how to identify and use each type of clause in sentences effectively.

– Apply rules of punctuation and conjunctions in clause construction accurately.

#### Topics

##### 1. **Definition and Overview of Clauses**

– **Clause:**

  – A group of words that contains a subject and a predicate.

  – Can be either independent (can stand alone as a sentence) or dependent (cannot stand alone and needs an independent clause).

##### 2. **Noun Clauses**

**Definition:**

– A dependent clause that functions as a noun within a sentence. It can act as a subject, object, or complement.

**Common Introducers:**

– that, if, whether, who, what, why, how, when, where, whom

**Functions:**

– **Subject**: *What she said* was surprising.

  – *What she said* is the subject of the sentence.

– **Object**: I don’t know *what she said*.

  – *what she said* is the direct object of the verb “know.”

– **Subject Complement**: The problem is *that we ran out of time*.

  – *that we ran out of time* is the complement of the subject “The problem.”

**Examples:**

– **As a Subject:**

  – *That he is a good person* is obvious.

  – *What she decided* baffled everyone.

– **As an Object:**

  – I believe *that the Earth is round*.

  – She asked *whether we were coming*.

– **As a Complement:**

  – My belief is *that everyone deserves a second chance*.

  – The fact is *that she never arrived*.

**Common Errors:**

– **Incorrect:** I don’t understand *that why she left*.

– **Correct:** I don’t understand *why she left*.

##### 3. **Adjective Clauses**

**Definition:**

– A dependent clause that functions as an adjective, modifying a noun or pronoun. It provides more information about a noun in the main clause.

**Common Introducers:**

– who, whom, whose, which, that

**Functions:**

– Usually follows the noun or pronoun it modifies.

– Can be restrictive (necessary for the meaning of the sentence) or non-restrictive (extra information, not necessary).

**Examples:**

– **Restrictive (No Commas):**

  – The book *that she lent me* was interesting.

  – Students *who study hard* get good grades.

– **Non-restrictive (With Commas):**

  – My brother, *who is a doctor*, lives in New York.

  – The car, *which was red*, sped away.

**Usage Rules:**

– Use “who” and “whom” for people.

– Use “that” for things in restrictive clauses.

– Use “which” for things in non-restrictive clauses.

**Common Errors:**

– **Incorrect:** She is the woman *which helped me*.

– **Correct:** She is the woman *who helped me*.

##### 4. **Adverbial Clauses**

**Definition:**

– A dependent clause that functions as an adverb, modifying a verb, adjective, or another adverb. It explains when, where, why, how, to what extent, or under what condition.

**Common Introducers:**

– because, since, although, when, while, as soon as, if, unless, until, before, after, so that, wherever

**Functions:**

– **Time:** *When the bell rings*, we will start.

– **Place:** We will go *wherever you want*.

– **Cause/Reason:** *Because it was raining*, we stayed inside.

– **Condition:** *If it rains*, we will cancel the picnic.

– **Contrast:** *Although it was raining*, we had the picnic.

– **Purpose:** She brought an umbrella *so that she wouldn’t get wet*.

– **Manner:** Do it *as you were told*.

**Examples:**

– **Time:** We will begin *when the clock strikes twelve*.

– **Place:** Sit *wherever you like*.

– **Cause/Reason:** They left *because they were tired*.

– **Condition:** *If you study hard*, you will pass the exam.

– **Contrast:** *Although she is young*, she is very responsible.

– **Purpose:** She saved money *so that she could travel*.

– **Manner:** He spoke *as if he knew everything*.

**Common Errors:**

– **Incorrect:** *Although she was tired* but she finished her work.

– **Correct:** *Although she was tired*, she finished her work.

##### 5. **Punctuation Guidelines**

###### Independent and Dependent Clause Combinations:

– **Dependent Clause First:**

  – If the dependent clause comes first, use a comma after it.

  – Example: *When the rain stopped*, we went outside.

– **Independent Clause First:**

  – If the independent clause comes first and the dependent clause follows, no comma is needed.

  – Example: We went outside *when the rain stopped*.

###### Non-restrictive Adjective Clauses:

– Always set them off with commas.

  – Example: My friend, *who is a teacher*, moved to Canada.

###### Restrictive Adjective Clauses:

– Do not use commas.

  – Example: The students *who studied* passed the exam.

By understanding and correctly using different types of clauses, your writing will be more precise, varied, and complex, enabling you to convey your ideas more effectively.